-Research-
- Original: First-hand experience of the wave of progress both with technology and its applications in society, industry and communication over the last 30 to 50 years is the first justification of its influence via video games, the internet and social media.
- Source: "The digital computer age began when the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard Mark I) started working in August 1944. This machine was based on the mechanical technology of rotating shafts, electromagnetic clutches, and counter wheels, developed over the years for punched card tabulating machinery." - (Reilly, 1)
- Objective: "Often circulating games between labs as free shareware and thus fueling innovation, other researchers and hobbyists developed prototypes for the genres that still dominate the game industry, including adventure, role-playing, shooting, and flight simulation games." - (Jenkins, 2)
- Evidence: "A relay computer constructed in Sweden (BARK) was operational early in 1950. Independent work on relay computers had also been done by Konrad Zuse in Germany, and a Zuse Z4 was running in Zurich in 1950." - (Reilly, 2)
- Support: "Relays lend themselves to complex circuit arrangements, and all the machines just mentioned had floating-point arithmetic operations, a feature that did not appear in electronic computers until well after the period now under review here The Bell machines had elaborate checking arrangements, including a redundant representation for stored numbers. Model VI even had a retry feature, designed to mitigate the effect of transient relay faults." - (Reilly, 2)
- Systematic: "The dramatic growth of the Internet sparked interests in on-line gaming. Fighting games such as Quake led to the formation of “clans” of on-line game-players and even “hired guns,” whom players can pay to best their enemies. Some argue that on-line gaming may allow a broader array of games to reach the market and may foster a new wave of innovations in digital storytelling." - (Jenkins, 10)
- Analysis: "The very early computers were extremely limited in the amount of internal storage that they had. Provision was usually made for tables to be held in read-only storage (banks of switches or punched paper tape) with arrangements for interpolation." - (Reilly, 4)
- Format: "Other critics have charged that the male orientation of game design and marketing fosters a gender gap in computer access. Game playing gave boys much earlier access to the computer than girls and resulted in boys having a greater comfort level with the technology." - (Jenkins,
- Participation: "As entrepreneurs marketed these prototypes, electronic games were introduced as public amusements in arcades and bars, taking their place alongside jukeboxes and pinball machines." - (Jenkins, 3)
- Communication: "Whirlwind I was a computer with a short word length, aiming at very high speed and power, and intended ultimately for air traffic control and similar applications." - (Reilly, 13)
- Management: "As the Internet in the mid-1990s became accessible to a wider public outside the research community, new pressures appeared. Commercial interests such as CD and video producers became alarmed at the freewheeling exchange of what they regarded as their intellectual property over the Internet." - (Hardy, IX;5)
- Relevance: "The experimental computers that came into action first were those that were least ambitious, both in specification and in performance." - (Reilly, 10)
- Currency: "The computer game's evolution has closely paralleled the larger “digital revolution”: originating with computer hobbyists and shareware advocates in the 1960s, reaching the general public in the 1970s and 1980s consumer electronics boom, and going on-line in the 1990s. Computer games now constitute a major sector of the American entertainment industry." - (Jenkins, 1)
- Purpose: "From the beginning, the UNIVAC was designed with an eye to business data processing, and the standards set for performance and reliability were very high." - (Reilly, 8 )
- Accuracy: "While the ENIAC was still under construction, Eckert and Mauchly began to realize that, by the application of logical principles, it would be possible to construct a machine not only much more powerful than the ENIAC but also much smaller." - (Reilly, 6)
- Status: "By 1990, the number of hosts on the Internet, now composed of the ARPANET, NSFNET, and a number of other connected networks, exceeded 100,000. ARPA funding for the ARPANET ended and the ARPA Network as such formally ceased operation. Growth of the Internet continued unabated and by 1992, the number of associated networks exceeded 7500 and the number of hosts exceeded 1,000,000." - (Hardy, VIII;1)
- Truncation (Link): "The ideas of hypertext and linking embodied in the World Wide Web had historical roots going back more than 50 years." - (Hardy, VIII; 2)
- Media: "The computer game also fueled the home market for the personal computer. Games such as Doom, Quake, and Myst proved to be “killer apps” (that is, software applications that sold the hardware)." - (Jenkins, 6)
- Article: "According to industry estimates, ninety percent of American boys and forty percent of American girls have played computer or video games." - (Jenkins, 5)
- Database: "A second generation of video game companies, dominated by Japanese-owned Nintendo, Sega, and later, Sony, revitalized the industry in the late 1980s and early 1990s, establishing electronic games as a central feature of American childhood." - (Jenkins, 5)
- Contact: "The World Wide Web was officially made available to the CERN community on May 17, 1991, and Berners-Lee informed the outside world in a series of postings to USENET groups alt.hypertext, comp.sys.next and others in August 1991. By the end of 1992 there were at least 26 reasonably reliable Web servers on the Internet." - (Hardy , VIII;12)
-Bibliography-
"Digital Computers, History of: Early." Encyclopedia of Computer Science, edited by Edwin D. Reilly, et al., Wiley, 4th edition, 2003. Credo Reference, http://ezproxy.tribecaflashpoint.edu/login?url=http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/encyccs/digital_computers_history_of_early/0?institutionId=8490. Accessed 24 Mar 2017.
Hardy, Henry Edward. "Internet, History and Development of." Encyclopedia of International Media and Communications, Donald Johnston, Elsevier Science & Technology, 1st edition, 2003. Credo Reference, http://ezproxy.tribecaflashpoint.edu/login?url=http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/estimc/internet_history_and_development_of/0?institutionId=8490. Accessed 24 Mar 2017.
Jenkins, Henry. "Video and Computer Games." Encyclopedia of American Studies, edited by Simon Bronner, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1st edition, 2016. Credo Reference, http://ezproxy.tribecaflashpoint.edu/login?url=http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/jhueas/video_and_computer_games/0?institutionId=8490. Accessed 26 Mar 2017.